The Theory Of Universal Grammar - 2132 Words

Hi Tom, there are many theories that try to explain that how children develop their language skills. From my perspective, I believe that early theories have provided a good understanding of children and their progress. In early theories, the environment was said to greatly influence a child’s learning and also played a major role in child language developments. According to Skinner, â€Å"children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases. For example, when the child says ‘milk’ and the mother will smile and give her some as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, enhancing the child s language development† (1). I think that early theories are a perfect way to explain how a child develops their language skills. However, Noam Chomsky has heavily criticized early child development theories. Chomsky has proposed that the theory of Universal Grammar can improve our understanding of childhood development. According to Chomsky, Universal Grammar is â€Å"an idea of innate, biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category that facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing in adults. Universal Grammar is considered to contain all the grammatical information needed to combine these categories, e.g. noun and verb, into phrases. The child’sShow MoreRelatedThe s Theory Of Universal Grammar Essay873 Words   |  4 Pagesspoke a universal language following the great flood and this led to the construction of a tower to display the greatest of humanity. As a result, God confounded their speech so that they could no longer under stand each other and scattered them around the world. I do believe this story to be true. 2. What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? The Sapir – Whorf hypothesis is whether or not the languages we speak shape the way we think. 3. Who is Noam Chomsky? What, briefly, is his theory of universal grammarRead MoreGrammar is divided in Two Sub-Categories: English Syntax and Morphology905 Words   |  4 PagesGrammar is traditionally divided into two sub-categories: morphology and syntax. Moprhology is the study of morphemes – smallest units of language that carry meaning – and how they are formed into words. Syntax is the study of the processes by which sentences are formed. Hereinafter, we shall take a look at the approach to grammar developed by Noam Chomsky. According to Chomsky, the goal of the linguist is to determine what it is that native speakers know about their native language which enablesRead MoreChomsky s Theory Of Human Language1362 Words   |  6 Pagesmake plans with each other. The faculty of language is arguably what makes human beings cognitively distinct from other creatures. Through narrowing the scope of human language, adopting a rationalistic influence, proposing his Cognitive Development Theory, and including essentialist aspects in his philosophy, Chomsky gives linguistics a respectable place in the greater sphere of epistemology. Noam Chomsky creates a narrow scope of linguistics, reducing the focus of its study. Chomsky believes studyingRead MoreLinguistic Nativism: There’s Something Between the Ears Language is something that humans use and1300 Words   |  6 Pagesworld in the human condition. But the question of how humans come from being silent babies to speaking children is still unanswered. Linguistic nativism is one theory that addresses the question. This paper is meant to present Nativism generally, and Linguistic Nativism specifically, and the address the arguments for and against the theory. Nativism is the view in philosophy that knowledge of some skills or information is innate and hence acquired, not learned. That is to say, nativists think thatRead MoreInnateness of Children’s Language Acquisition1371 Words   |  6 Pagesfundamental question in the study of linguistics and human development. From Bow-wow Theory to Yo-He-Ho Theory, major theories on the origins and learnability of language have emerged in mid-20th century and heavily debated ever since. Among them, the idea of universal grammar in which is usually credited to linguist Noam Chomsky, remains the most notable and controversial theory over time. He introduced and developed the theory from 1950s to 1970s, as he proposed and championed linguistic nativism in languageRead MoreUnderstanding Grammatical Language Skills : Universal Grammar1377 Words   |  6 PagesMargaret Benson LING 489 Short Paper 1 Universal Grammar For many years studies have been conducted to explore how humans develop grammatical language skills. Universal Grammar (UG) is a linguistic theory proposed by Noam Chomsky arguing that humans’ ability to learn grammar is prewired into the brain, claiming that no a priori knowledge or language contact is necessary for language organization (Chomsky 1967). Chomsky contends that humans posses ability unlike any other sentient beings to masterRead MoreEnglish Syntax- Summary676 Words   |  3 Pages To start with, grammar is usually divided into two inter-related areas of study – morphology and syntax. Morphology is concerned with how words are formed out of smaller units,which are called morphemes, and syntax is the study of how these words or phrases are combined into sentences. Nowadays, there are two different approaches of studying grammar: a cognitive and a taxonomic. The person who influenced the most a cognitive approach, and its development, was Noam Chomsky,Read MoreThe subtlety of language acquisition has been the most fundamental question in the study of1500 Words   |  6 Pageshas been the most fundamental question in the study of linguistics and human development. From Bow-wow Theory to Yo-He-Ho Theory, the major theories on language origins and learnability emerged at mid-20th century and has been heavily debated ever since. Among them, the idea of universal grammar in which is usually credited to linguist Noam Chomsky, remains the most notable and controversial theory over time. He introduced and developed the t heory from 1950s to 1970s as he proposed and championedRead MoreCritical Period Hypothesis859 Words   |  4 PagesHypothesis theory which contends that language is innate but has to be attained before the age of puberty o r else the ability to learn language ebbs (as a result of the lateralization of the brain). 1 At present, the Critical Period Hypothesis theory is widely accepted by numerous linguists. Evidence has been presented that there is a limited time when the brain is malleable (in terms of language). Studies such as, linguistically isolated children (a.k.a. feral children) support Lenneberg s theory of theRead MoreEnglish-based Pidgins and Creoles806 Words   |  3 Pagesover time an assortment of scholars has come forth to propose their different theories as to the accounts for the origins and development of English based creoles and pidgins. There has long been a dispute as to the extent these English based pidgins and creoles share a universal origin, with theories contrasting and overlapping. In this paper, explanations and evaluations will take place covering these different theories along with a short analysis throughout. In short, the term pidgin has been

The Supreme Court Of Canada Essay - 1778 Words

The supreme court of Canada has overruled numerous laws put forward by the Harper government. In 2010, former Prime Minister Stephen Harper was opposed to the Vancouver Eastside supervised injection site. Stephen Harper took a conservative approach to the issue, he said that â€Å"we as a government will not use taxpayer’s money to fund drug use† (Rachlis, 2010). The Prime Minister did not recognize the potential benefits to Canadian society as he focused on budgeting, without recognizing the benefit to public welfare that would reduce disease, death and have a rehabilitative effect on participants of the program. Judicial decisions play an influential role in the provisions of the Constitution because their interpretation is essential to understanding and employing it. In this essay I will argue that the traditional role of the judges has evolved into having a determinative function of law, that allows judges to uphold citizen’s rights and preserve justice in Ca nada. Through analyzing judicial review, I will demonstrate how judge’s role is much more than an interpretation of law through exploring the idea of Charter proofing, integrating public opinion in decisions, production of common law and judicial activism that serve in creating a climate that is adaptive to new issues that may arise and free from arbitrary rule. The Fathers of confederation adopted a political system that created three branches of government: the executive branch, the legislative branch and theShow MoreRelatedThe Supreme Court Of Canada1984 Words   |  8 PagesThe Supreme Court is one of the most influential ways in determining whether something is considered to be â€Å"constitutional† in many developed countries around the world, including Canada. Within this country, the Supreme Court is the highest Court of Appeal that both territories and provinces can bring court cases to, making it extremely important in the way the country functions (The Supreme Court of Canada, 2016). Within this country, the way the judges are chosen is something that has recentlyRead MoreThe Supreme Court Of Canada1969 Words   |  8 Pages In 2013 the Supreme Court of Canada (SCC) struck down the Country’s existing prostitution laws because they violated Section 7 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms (hereafter referred to as Th e Charter) as they infringed in a sex workers right to life, liberty and security, specifically because while the act of being a sex worker was not illegal, many of the aspects around it were which was deemed unjust (Perrin, 2014: 6-7). This case is important not only because of the way it effects sex workersRead MoreThe Supreme Court Of Canada Decision Essay855 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction You have asked me to summarize the Supreme Court of Canada decision in Dorà © v Barreau du Quà ©bec, 2012 SCC 12, SCR 395 and analyze whether the Law society is likely to sanction Evan Frank. Although the Rules of Professional Conduct place limitations on certain conduct to ensure professionalism, the expressive rights of lawyers must be given due respect and the likelihood of Mr. Frank’s sanction will depend on a fair balance of â€Å"expressive value† of the content in the letter, with theRead MoreReviewing The Supreme Court Of Canada Case993 Words   |  4 PagesAnalyzing the Supreme Court of Canada Case: Carter v. Canada (Attorney General)- the Death with Dignity Case The appellants Lee Carter, Hollis Johnson and Gloria Taylor joined with other appellants to bring the civil claim which is against the prohibition on assisted suicide found in s. 14 and s. 241 (b) of the Criminal Code (Carter, para. 20). The same issue which was brought in Rodriguez v. British Columbia 20 years ago was declared to be constitutional. In this case, ultimately Lee Carter’s appealsRead MoreR.v.Feeney Supreme Court of Canada Hearing2554 Words   |  10 Pagesand their privacy rights are infringed. The job of the courts are then to evaluate the case, and check if the appellants rights were indeed violated, if so was it because the protection of society outweigh the individual right to privacy. First, in this paper we will discuss important section numbers relating to the Feeney case which includes section 8, 10 (b), and section 24 (b). Than we will examine the ruling from the Supreme Court of Canada regarding the Feeney case and how this case has impactedRead More The Charter Of Rights And Freedoms1139 Words   |  5 Pages1960’s-1970’s Quebec was extremely discontent with being apart of Canada due to the language barer and being a minority. Many citizens in Quebec even wanted to separate themselves from Canada and form their own nation. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau decided that the new charter in order to ensure the rights of people residing in Quebec. In order to do this Trudeau had to create an amending formula for the British North-American Act. This would grand Canada its independence from Brittan. After gaining independenceRead MoreCanada Public Policy Essay1665 Words   |  7 Pageswhich public policy is crafted and applied in Canada. Factors such as policy paradigms, the government in power, and economic incentives greatly impact how public policy affects Canadians. However, an unexpected political actor shapes Canadian law in a more extrinsic and all-encompassing way and acts as a sort of â€Å"unofficial† pol icy maker in government despite its role in the judicial court system: The Supreme Court of Canada. The Supreme Court of Canada is a public policy maker because it has theRead MoreThe Canadian Criminal Justice System1219 Words   |  5 Pagesconsists of policing, courts, corrections and parole. The component of the Canadian Criminal Justice System that will be discussed is about the process and function of the courts. The criminal courts are responsible for determining the guilt or innocence of the person that is accused (Griffiths, 2015, p.147). As well as the courts are supposed to conclude the appropriate sentence while protecting their rights of the accused. The outcome that comes from the criminal courts is that the judgementRead MoreUnderstanding the Complexity of Canadas Courts Essay736 Words   |  3 Pages In America we have a complex system of courts that many do not understand, this is the same in many other countries too. There are many different types of court system you could have. There is Common Law, Civil Law, a mix of both and Islamic Law. America has a type of law called Common Law, which originally comes from England. This type just means that there are decisions by judges and courts. Another country with this law is Canada. When you look at the systems you can see how similar they areRead MoreEssay on court system1467 Words   |  6 Pagesbasic role of the Canadian cou rt system is to deliver justice between two individuals or two individuals and the state. There are four levels of court in Canada. Provincial courts are the lowest in terms of power. They handle most of the day to day cases. The next court in terms of power is the provincial and territorial superior courts. These courts take care of the more serious crimes that are admitted into the system, and can also take appeals from provincial court judgments. Another that has

Woman In Society Essay Research Paper Women free essay sample

Woman In Society Essay, Research Paper Womans and their axial rotation on society Womans are of import in our society. Every adult female has her ain occupation or responsibility in this modern society in which work forces are still the strongest gender. We can+t bury that women+s life is a batch more complicated than a man+s life. A adult female has to take attention of her ain personal life and if she is a female parent, she has to take attention besides about her children+s life excessively. Marriaged adult females have tonss of concerns and believe it or non, they carry out a more stressfull life than marriaged work forces. Several times in my life I have heard commentaries about the deficiency of importance of adult females. I am personally against these sort of commentaries. In my life the most of import individual I remember is my female parent. We will write a custom essay sample on Woman In Society Essay Research Paper Women or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page She is a professional besides, but besides her profession, she ever took good attention of me. We can+t bury that all human existences come right from a adult female. We can+t disregard that is a adult female the 1 who has to populate with her ain life and besides learn the right attentions for rescent born babes in order to garantee our safety and the opportunity to last. At place the most of import individual is in most of the instances is the female parent. She is the one that cares about the order, the affair and the wellness of all the household. But the concerns she carry for us are non wholly extrange . They care so much for us because believe it or non, we were portion of her about nine months and now, as we grow up, we are the nexus that will give our parent+s gens the oportunity of life for another coevals. Besides, we can see that the adult male of the house has other concerns such as how to raise money adequate to feed his household the full hebdomad. For this ground he can+t acomplish the attentions that the adult female of the house takes with their ain kids. Personally, I can+t conceive of my life without the image and the support of my female parent. I believe that a female parent is the 80 % of the attention you of all time will necessitate. I am and I will be the individual I am because of my female parent. I am certain that the lone thing I may girl if some twenty-four hours I loose my household could be my female parent and now is the clip when I realize and convince myself that she is the most of import individual for me. I am certain my remark could be accepted by most of the people populating in a similar society. Finally I merely want to show the importance of adult female in the society by shuting our eyes, and seeking to conceive of our childhood or even our most sad minutes in our house without the image of a fantastic adult female, our female parents ; so we will understand the importance and the forfeit that females ( the weak gender ) have to take over to do this society be the manner it is today.

Implementation of Safety Culture

Question: Discuss about the Implementation of Safety Culture. Answer: The safety climate is defined as the emphasis on the safety practices at any point of time in the organization. The safety climate refers to the perception of the employees and the workers related to the health and safety culture practiced in the organization. It is a related term to thee safety culture but denotes entirely different thing. While, safety culture denotes the safety measures, techniques and methods used in the organization, safety climate denotes the perception of the employees related to the importance of the safety. Therefore, it can be critiqued that safety of the organization is dependent on the safety climate of the organization. The workers and the employees will practice the safety methods only when they understand the importance of following them and the mishaps and the accidents that can occur due to negligence. In spite of the safety equipment several employees do not follow safety measures due to carelessness. The safety climate denotes the practices followed by the organization and encompasses all the perceptions, beliefs, value and opinion of the workers regarding the safety. An employer is legally obliged to create a safe and healthy workplace environment. It includes usage of the machinery, equipment and influencing the perception of the workers that ensure workplace safety. It is also duty of the employer to create a safe work environment in the organization (Touzet, 2004 May). An employer must maintain the workplace in a condition where the workers are not exposed to hazards or risks and must provide instructions and training regarding safe workplace practices. The safety climate is an important asset to the organization to control the workplace mishaps and accidents. It is related to safety measures and provides means to measure the perception of the workers regarding the safety culture in their organization. The safety climate of an organization can be measured by examining the importance of the perception and the view point of the employees regarding the safety methods. The safety climate is integral in combating the workplace hazard and accidents. The leaders and the management are critical in developing safety climate in the organization. The management can develop a safety intervention program that can educate the workers regarding the importance of the safety in the workplace (Zizzo, 2011). The intervention may include workshops with the managers or department head and coaching sessions. The leader should also give value to the feedback and input of the employees regarding the safety problems and issues. The management of the organiz ation can also modify the job designs to provide clear safety responsibilities for the managers. Other than that, the employees and the workers should be acknowledged regarding the safety by enforcing accountability in the actions of supervisors and the workers. It is important that a company trains its personnel regarding safety practices and how to protect themselves. The training should encompass how to handle instruments with safety guidelines and how to handle situations in case of mishaps or workplace accidents. In developing the safety culture within the organization, the management must focus on three elements of safety culture, namely, self-regulation, culture of self-regulation and culture of compliance. These elements will assist the organization in creating an understanding and appreciation of the safety practices followed in the workplace. It is also important that the management encourages its senior employees to make safety and environmental awareness its highest priority (Touzet, 2004 May). The new employees should be provided with a safety orientation regarding the safety regulation and emergency procedure required in the job. Along with it, they should be provided regular training regarding the safety issues in their specific department and how to compete their jobs safely. The workers should also be provided regular retraining when the job standards are changed, job changes or employee remain absent from the organization for a long time. The Company can encourage personal participation and motivation by increasing the possibility of the workplace promotion for the employees who conduct safety practices. The employees should also be provided recognition regarding their performance. The business organizations can promote safety culture by identifying it as a matter of self-interest. The workers will also understand that adopting safety culture will reduce the chances of mishaps and the companies should also understand that maintaining safety culture will reduce the investment and cost to the organization. It also provides the business orga nizations to implement management and control system that reduces the cost of operations and increases the operational efficiency (Zizzo, 2011). The safety clime is responsible for the health, safety and the climate issues in the organization. References Krause, T.R. (2005). Leading with Safety. London: John Wiley Sons. Touzet, R.E. (2004, May). The practical implementation of Safety Culture. In Proc. 11th International IRPA Congress, Madrid, Spain (pp. 23-28). Zizzo, S. (2011). 8 steps to a strong safety culture. ISHN. [Online]. Available at: https://www.ishn.com/articles/91474-8-steps-to-a-strong-safety-culture [Accessed on: 2 January 2017].

Tootsie Roll Industries Essay Example

Tootsie Roll Industries Paper The report given is about a Chicago based company called Tootsie Roll Industries, Inc. Tootsie Roll Industries is an old company that has been manufacturing and selling candy for more than 110 years and has come a long way after a number of merger and acquisitions to add to the brands’ product line. The company currently operates in 30 countries. However, it is imperative that the company operations should be extended to other countries to make Tootsie Rolls a household name in every country. As an International Business Development Manager of this company, I have suggested expanding the company operations to Pakistan where the consumers look for newer products. And even though the local competition provides candies at lower prices, the lack of quantity and quality of the local candies has made them undesirable for the brand conscious middle and upper class of the country. Moreover, the imported chocolates of the companies Hershey’s, Cadbury, Nestle and Mars can not be afforded often by the lower middle and the middle class who also have desire to consume high quality sweets and chocolates. The report discusses the company operations, target market, brands and core competencies. Then the report presents recommendations about the target country and comprehensively analyses and discusses how and why this country is suitable for expanding the company operations. II. COMPANY ANALYSIS We will write a custom essay sample on Tootsie Roll Industries specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Tootsie Roll Industries specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Tootsie Roll Industries specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Tootsie Roll Industries is a manufacturer of confectionery in the United States. Its best known products / brands have been Tootsie Rolls which are â€Å"chewy chocolate -flavoured candies† and Tootsie Pops, â€Å"hard candy lollipops filled with chewy chocolate-flavoured Tootsie Rolls†. Along with these, the company has added to its brands by acquiring other confectioners. The company was established in 1896 by an Austriant immigrant called Leo Hirshfield who brought his own recipe when he came to America. He first started to produce Tootsie Rolls in a small store in New York City. In 1917, the company was called The Sweets Company of America, and in 1966, adopted its current name of Tootsie Roll Industries, Inc. Since its inception, the company has expanded by acquiring several famous brands of confections such as Mason Division from Candy Corporation of America, Cellas Confections, The Charms Company, The Warner-Lambert Company (excluding gum mints), Andes Candies, and Concord Confections. â€Å"Tootsie Roll Industries currently markets its brands internationally in Canada, Mexico, and over 30 other countries. The companys heaquarters are located in Chicago. † The company has been operating successfully under the auspices of the married team of 87-year-old chairman and CEO Melvin Gordon and 75-year-old president and COO Ellen Gordon who control 80% of the companys voting power. The company has been known to use the same formula for over 100 years. Its Charms and Tootsie Pops brands make it one of the largest lollipop producers in the world. According to Hoover’s Fact Sheet, Tootsie Roll Industries, Inc. has total of 26 competitors in the confectionary and candy industry in the countries in which it is operating. However, the most important ones are Hershey, Mars and Nestle. Mars is considered to be the industry leader manufacturing high quality and high energy brands such as Twix, Mars, Snickers, Milky Way, MMs, etc. that not only cater to the children but adults of all ages as well. Customers/ Target Market The company mostly targets the children and to some extent the younger population (teenagers) up to the age of 18. However, Tootsie also targets the adults as well for using its products in the offices, meetings, social gatherings, parties, and special occasions so that they become a family product rather than a child’s. Even though, candies and sweets are products that are primarily for the children, the products are used by and popular among all ages both young and old. During the Korean War, Tootsie Rolls was very famous among the armed forces. According to them, Tootsie Rolls reminded them of their country America, and gave them hope and kept them alive during the war. US military has since been a major part of the loyal customers of Tootsie products. Tootsie Rolls has been a nostalgic reminder of home bringing them good memories about their country. Also, the brands such as Charms Family Fun and Child’s Play specifically cater to family occasions such as Halloween and birthday parties. Moreover, they do not cater to any specific income class; hence they are affordable and liked by affluent as well as the middle class. Products and Services The company is basically into manufacturing candies and confectionery industry. Tootsie’s core products are candies and confectionery items such as chocolates, toffees, caramel sweets, bubble gums, lollipops, jellies, cotton candy, etc. It has added to its original brand of Tootsie Rolls by mergers and acquisitions and has extended its product line and customer base since its inception. Some famous brands manufactured and sold by the company are as follows: 1. Tootsie Rolls Tootsie Rolls was the first product that was produced and sold by Leo Hirshfield in his small shop that brought the company fames. â€Å"Hirshfield hand rolled and wrapped his chewy, chocolate flavored creation and named the candy after his 5-year-old daughter, Clara, whose nickname was Tootsie. Tootsie Roll was the first wrapped penny candy in America. † Today, Tootsie Rolls are produced using the same basic recipe that was used by its creator over a century ago. About 62 million Tootsie Rolls are produced every day. Tootsie Rolls now come in a variety of shapes and sizes.

Essay Topics for Your Class

Essay Topics for Your ClassLooking at the best essay topics for a class is actually one of the most challenging parts of being an online college student. After all, you will be writing essays about subjects that are entirely new to you.This article contains some tips on how to choose a good essay topic. You will find out some strategies to look at and some tips on which ones are the best to do.Make sure you know your audience. Do not just try to think of a topic to write about but find out what sort of audience the topics you can write are likely to interest. If you are looking at topics that are likely to be taught by an expert, there is no better way to learn than to go through those books or magazines.Have an idea of the level of difficulty for your topic. Don't get stuck in to too many difficult topics, as they will bore your reader. Be sure you choose a subject that has a lot of easy topics to write about.Research the topics. Have a look at what has been written about the topics that you would like to write about. If the topic has already been covered, take a look at the topic to see if there is anything new or different.Research the topic. With the information you gathered from other people, you can now make a judgment on the most interesting topic to write about.These tips will help you select the best time essay topics for your class. After all, you will be facing stiff competition from other students so you need to give them the best answer to the questions that they may ask.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn essays

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn essays The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain has been known for its array of interesting characters, including the runaway slave protagonist named Jim. Without Jim's help in the story, Huck would have never reached where he was, much less go through everything he did and learn what he did. Throughout the novel, Jim plays a role similar to a father figure to Huck by helping develop his physical strength, mentality, and morals. Aside from helping Huck, he becomes one of the most appealing characters in the story with his personality, superstitions, ideas, and significance within the plot of the novel itself. Jim plays the role of the father by helping Huck's physical well-being. He first provides food and shelter for Huck, then continually catches fish and fixes meals for him. In contrast to this, when Huck resided back at his house, he had always been working to provide himself with everything. Jim also gives Huck advice throughout the novel. From the very beginning of the novel when he sees his father's boot prints, Huck goes to Jim for advice. Despite the slave's fearful superstitions, his advice is mostly coherent and understandable, as seen when he advises against boarding the Walter Scott. Lastly, Jim provides protection for Huck. He passively protects Huck from the different people in society by having the raft ready to escape back to the river. Also, Jim actively protects Huck by lying to the King and Duke for him after they catch up with him on the river and threaten him. While Huck had no one to protect him before, now he has Jim to stand up for him against people that are li ke Pap, showing what a true father should do. Although Jim's ability to protect him is limited because of his status as a black slave, he protects him the best he possibly can. Jim also plays the role of the father by providing for Huck's emotional well-being. He provides affection for the boy. One of the memories that causes Huck to make his final...